‘The most pressing environmental problems of today are mainly due to pressures of globalisation, compounded by failures of governance.’

Introduction

In the context of U316 ‘The Environmental Web’, globalisation and governance are two of the main themes that run throughout the module. Globalisation is taken to be the concept of one world in some cases united and others at loggerheads and fragmented. It is an inherent idea that there is global responsibility to seek solutions to environmental problems at any level.  Indeed in some cases it may be argued that problems stem from globalisation. I will address this later in the report. Governance is used in terms of societies; their understanding and application of experience to work collectively and sustainably. Interconnectivity is forged at many levels; physical and virtual, from the individual to supranational. Governance is a multi-layered approach to problem-solving involving stakeholders such as small island states, through to the work of international NGOs (Non-governmental organisations). Environmental problems is a particularly vague phrase in this context especially as in Book 4 the author (Simon, 2009) is at pains to point out that their focus is on responses rather than the problems themselves.

In the introductory book, Brandon, Clark (Ed) and Widdowson (2009) state that environmental problems can be seen as an aspect of globalisation. The trend towards increasing connectivity (physical and virtual) provides accessible global coverage of environmental problems.

Environmental problems U316

There is a temptation to think that science will provide quick-fix solutions to environmental problems; unfortunately this is untrue. Problems are made more apparent by becoming the focus of media attention. There is a tendency to compartmentalise and decide something is a problem of the developing world and that there ought to be a developed world solution.

In U316 book 3, Peake and Smith (2009) focus on Climate Change; they address a particular set of environmental problems exacerbated by human behaviour and ecosystem modification. They present scientific evidence of climate change and some of the integrated responses necessitated by globalisation. Climate change is a good example of a set of anthropogenic problems resulting from globalisation. The spreading use of fossil fuels; increasing emissions of greenhouse gases and concomitant effects of on-going anthropogenic global climate change have been compounded by ineffectual governance.

Brandon, Clark (Ed) and Widdowson (2009) set the task of information gathering for a given small island state. I researched environmental problems actual and potential for the small island state of Haiti. There the inhabitants are at the mercy of extreme weather events exacerbated by climate change. This has led to increased frequency and severity of tropical storms. The aftermath of the January 2010 earthquake ought to have been an opportunity for good governance.

Silvertown et al (2009) look at some of the problems of ecosystems and biodiversity from the angle of sustainability. They focus on the Millennium Assessment Report instigated at the behest of the United Nations (UN) which addressed human impact on ecosystems and biodiversity. Like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) it is a repository of environmental information. Loss of biodiversity is a fundamental environmental problem. Classic environmental problems of pollution (air and water) and radiation from nuclear power stations are mentioned.

I shall return in more detail to pressures of globalisation and failures of governance later.

Simon (2009) looks at water problems as multi-dimensional and part of other environmental problems (climate change). However, on-line activities and a tutor group forum Water on Water transfers in the ‘Dry West’ led naturally to discovering environmental problems along with the actors and factors in the video sequences.

Pressures of globalisation

Throughout out the U316 module emphasis is put on the globalised world we inhabit. Various media and in particular the facility of the Internet has increased our knowledge of a shrinking world. Viewing the world from computer desktop, laptop or other chosen hardware allows individuals to survey the world and feel part of our globalised environment. But we are not all in the same situation and responses are many and varied. Yet moves are being made towards the idea of ‘collective responsibility’ for the environmental problems of the world today. This has been brought about through increasing interconnectivity at all levels of society.

We live in a changing environment, some problems are natural others are cause by the pressures of globalisation. Population increases place stress on ecosystems and the environment. Urbanisation, particularly in economically less developed countries has caused a myriad of environmental problems that impact negatively on local ecosystems.

At the other extreme, taking Antarctica as an example the module shows the impact of globalisation on a fragile environment and its ecosystems. Here, the first example of globalisation (historically) was the arrival of whalers and impact on species driving some almost to extinction before an international ban on whaling was imposed. (Pauly, D.) Another feature of our globalised world is the accessibility of Antarctica by tourists and scientists. However, increasing global awareness has led to education and implementation of measures intended to lessen the impact of people on Antarctica. This is an example of globalisation working to address and prevent rather than cause environmental problems.

 

Failures of governance

Returning to Haiti as an example, international agencies, governments and NGOs responded to the earthquake (2010) but even under the auspices of the UN problems continue to multiply. The World Bank and other international agencies have spent years ‘throwing money’ at Haiti’s problems. When outside agencies work in an ad hoc manner; is it a failure of governance? International agencies by-passed the Haitian government and focussed on their own individual projects. Although much has been done restructuring has yet to take place.

Governance works at various levels within society.

It can have a top-down or bottom-up approach.

Top-down

Planned and implemented by International organisation (INGOs), National (government) or Local (NGO)

Bottom-up

Community based focusing on local initiatives.

Peake (2009) looks at climate change from an international perspective through the work of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which began in 1994. Various UN organisations work from the top down but are cumbersome and decision making can take years to be adopted and even longer to be implemented. Taking the Kyoto Protocol as an example; which began with a conference in 1997 and its remit lasts until 2012. Its successor, the Copenhagen Protocol (2009) was held up by differences of opinion between African countries and the rest of the attendees. Whilst the great and the good move around the world from conference to conference and attend committee meetings failures of governance are often taken for granted.

The IPCC was set up in 1988 through the UN’s Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO) [Book 1, p15] to collect and collate climate change data. However, the various working groups of the IPCC have experienced reliability problems when their findings have been called into question. It now categorises its reports according to a set scale of uncertainty.

Do pressures of globalisation and governance have to mean failure?

Rodriguez et al (2006) formed the basis of on-line tutor group discussion and an assignment question. In his article he looked at various levels of governance and their impact on the sustainability of biodiversity ‘Hot spots’; from International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs) down to the role of the individual. He found that the bottom-up structure of globalisation can be more effective especially when governance is small-scale. Loss of biodiversity is a massive environmental problem on a global scale. INGOs are a product of globalisation. They often focus on problems from the top down, but Rodriguez et al (2006) note that INGOs have begun to register their organisations in developing countries as an attempt at greater accountability. Unfortunately, this puts them in competition for funding with local NGOs.

Conclusion

I chose the following environmental problems as exemplars of the impact of globalisation compounded by failures of governance:

• climate change,
• loss of biodiversity,
• urbanisation and
• Fragile environments.

Exploitation of Antarctica’s fragile environment shows how pressures of globalisation and failures of governance threatened its ecosystem. Through the Antarctic Treaty with its Environmental Protocol along with Guidance for visitors to the Antarctic (British Antarctic Survey); it has become an area of good governance where the impact of globalisation is being controlled.

Antarctica is but one area where environmental problems are being addressed. My other examples show the opposite situation. Today’s major environmental problems are due to pressures of globalisation which are compounded by failures of governance.

Global climate change is a prime example. Peake and Smith (2009) summarising

Environmental problems make headline news; good news becomes a paragraph filler. By using a search engine and employing the skills and techniques afforded by the U316 module will call up multiple results. Similarly news stories about failures of governance and negative impact of globalisation are legion. Good governance encourages individual participation granting people ownership and empowerment.  Individuals become stakeholders with growing responsibility for the management of the environment. To politicians this is the stuff of nightmares, but not to students of the U316 module.

Yet, globalisation marches on apace with rapid population growth, urbanisation and anthropogenic climate change despoiling the environment, engendering biodiversity loss and habitat destruction. The same globalisation which triggers destruction can also bring about positive outcomes; by providing and improving connectivity the world-wide environmental web helps groups and individuals seek answers to problems of globalisation.